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With the development of deep learning techniques, many researchers have started using neural network-based models for road damage detection. Most of these works use convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for pixel-level segmentation of road images. For example, Fan et al. [16] first used a CNN-based classification network to filter images containing cracks, after which the damages were extracted by traditional image processing methods of filtering with adaptive thresholding. On the other hand, Feng et al. [17] pre-processed the images to filter image noise, input them into two different crack segmentation models, and finally used the predicted results to synthesize the geometric parameters of the cracks calculated using the prediction results. Subsequently, Nguyen et al. [18] proposed a two-stage CNN network for low-resolution image detection and segmentation, which shortens the processing steps while increasing the efficiency of automated detection. Cheng et al. [19] proposed a computerized road crack detection method based on the structure of U-Net and introduced a function of distance transformation to assign pixel weights according to the actual segmentation minimum distance to assign pixel weights. Rill-García et al. [20], on the other hand, used VGG19 to replace the original backbone feature extraction network (VGG16) based on U-Net for improving the accuracy of road crack segmentation in the presence of incorrect annotations.
Classical image processing to detect objects tends to segment the object from the background using thresholding, and most prior studies on road damage detection do the same. For example, Akagic et al. [25] proposed a pavement crack detection method based on a combination of the grayscale histogram and Otsu thresholding to search for pavement cracks by dividing the input image into sub-images after the ratio of the maximum histogram to the threshold value obtained. Sari et al. [26] brought results with reasonable accuracy by using the Otsu thresholding algorithm and Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrices (GLCM) for road crack feature detection and extraction, followed by the support vector machine (SVM) algorithm for experimental classification statistics.
Quan et al. [27] proposed an improved Otsu thresholding-based crack detection method that avoids the problem of peak prominence by modifying the weight factor and improves the accuracy compared to the original Otsu thresholding. Chung et al. [28] proposed a method to find the optimal threshold of the image using inverse binary and Otsu thresholding algorithm to meet the real-time pavement pothole detection. They applied the distance transformation of the image using the Watershed algorithm for calculating marker potholes.
In addition, many studies used the boundary decision capability of SVM to classify road damage. For example, Hoang [29] used the least squares version of SVM (LS-SVM) for supervised learning to establish an automatic classification method for pavement potholes compared to single pavement pothole detection. Gao et al. [30] used a machine learning model based on the library of support vector machines (LIBSVM) to propose a fast detection method that distinguishes potholes, longitudinal cracks, transverse cracks, and complex cracks.
Image classification: The most typical CNN approaches to perform road damage detection and classification tasks are usually trained by designing a neural network consisting of convolutional and fully connected (FC) layers. For example, An et al. [31] classified images into two types with or without potholes by replacing the backbone feature extraction network in CNN and comparing the accuracy of different backbone networks in colour and colour grayscale frames in a cross-sectional manner. Bhatia et al. [32] developed a method to predict whether an input thermal image is a pothole or a non-pothole, demonstrating that using the residual network as the backbone network can improve the model detection rate applied in night-time and foggy weather environments. Fan et al. [33] experimentally evaluated 30 CNNs for road crack image classification, where Progressive neural architecture search (PNASNet) achieved the best balance between speed and accuracy. However, the image classification only presents the object image and does not detect the details of road damage in the image.
As can be seen from the heat map shown in Figure 11, all methods achieve good attentional results due to the large size of the Crosswalk and white line blur objects. For longitudinal linear crack detection, our proposed LMCA-Net is slightly inferior to CBAM. For small object detection like bumps and potholes, LMCA-Net can ultimately achieve the same attention effect as CBAM and SK-Net. For the case of multiple objects combined, our method accurately generates more highlighted regions for multi-scale objects. It can achieve the same attention effect as the larger model with a smaller number of parameters.
To evaluate the visualization results of the models, five representative models of YOLOv4-Mobilenetv2, EfficientDet-D0, YOLOX-L, EfficientDet-D4, and Our Approach of lightweight or accurate models are provided, as shown in Figure 13. These examples were taken from images of the test set covering the significant road damage, including transverse and longitudinal linear cracks, alligator cracks, bumps, potholes and crosswalks, and lane line blur. It can be seen that our proposed method outperforms the other models in terms of both classification and confidence scores. Among them, for the lightweight models YOLOv4-Mobilenetv2 and EfficientDet-D0, which have similar parameters, there are more deficiencies in pavement damage detection, such as cracks, potholes, etc. In comparison to the representative models YOLO-X and EfficientDet-D4, which have higher accuracy, our proposed method not only has absolute advantages in terms of the number of parameters, but it also performs better for the classification of small-sized targets like potholes and transverse linear cracks.
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